ADHD - Literature Review - Influencing Development in the Family, Education, and Social Systems

Attention deficit hyperactivity in accordance with Singh (2002) is a developmental disorder that is based on the brain and most often affects children. This developmental disorder can be described as a disorder that affects self-control; The main aspects are difficulties with attention, impulse control and activity levels, which are usually diagnosed before the age of 7yrs. (Willoughby, 2003).

There are primarily three subtypes of ADHD. The inattentive subtype 1 is ADHD, which manifests inattention without having hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). There is also ADHD subtype 2 with symptoms associated with hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). Finally, there is a combined subtype of ADHD (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). For the purpose of my article, I will use information that represents all subtypes in varying degrees and the implications of these difficulties for individual, educational, family and social development, as well as issues of social justice and cultural issues for those children suffering from this disorder.

Historically, modern symptoms of ADHD were first identified (Barkley 1996, Rafalovich 2001, Stubbe, 2001), English physicist George Still in 1902 (Neufeld & Foy, 2006). Rafalovich (Rafalovich, 2001) explains that a series of historical events of 1917–1918 in North America that led to an outbreak of encephalitis experienced a sharp increase in studies of characteristics similar to modern ADHD symptoms. During the first years of research, even medical conditions that edema in certain aspects of the brain have been investigated and researched, which, according to many, led to impulsivity and hyperactivity (Stubbe, 2000). As research has evolved, so are the diagnostic criteria for the disorder; forming identifiable factors that are thought to contribute to the causation of ADHD (Barkley, 2005). Physiologically, it appears that in the brain of patients with ADHD, there seems to be less dopamine and no adrenaline, and four genes that regulate dopamine have been identified as causal agents of ADHD; however, a specific causative agent has not been confirmed (Barkley, 2005). Brain activity is significantly lower in areas in front of the frontal lobe in patients with ADHD, and there is also a decrease in blood flow (Hans, Henricksen & Bruhn, 1984) (Barkley, 2005). According to Barkley (2005), the psychological characteristics of ADHD are that it is about “behavioral inhibition”. These children do not benefit from what may happen later, based on what they are doing now; which can be compared with the “time of myopia” (Barkley, 2005). They have difficulty defining their past, preparing for the future, organizing, planning and working independently, with social and professional problems (Barkley, 2005). It is these difficulties that are mixed with the development of personality, which can obviously cause great difficulties, especially when they study in formalized education and further into the requirements of school and adulthood.

The prevalence rates for the diagnosis of ADHD ranged from 4 to 18%, depending on the community, types of populations, and areas of analysis (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). ADHD is one of the most common childhood disorders with 2.5 million children with this disorder (Barkley, 2005). Estimates show (Biederman, 1996) that about 6% of boys and 1.5% of girls have ADHD (Singh, 2002). It cost about $ 3.3 billion to treat ADHD every year in the United States (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Currently, causal factors in sequential observation according to Barkley (2005) include;

1. Genetics

2. Premature birth

3. Traumatic brain injury

4. Spinal cord and brain infections

5. Early exposure to substances during pregnancy

6. Early lead exposure

7. Less blood flow and reduced brain activity

Because ADHD is a representation of physical impairments in the brain and actually shows a decrease in activity in areas in front of the frontal lobe; Some treatment options for amphetamines, stimulants and non-amphetamines have been used to increase brain activity (Barkley, 2005). The size and abnormalities in the brain have been checked and investigated by many technological processes, such as positron emission tomography and MRI scans (Vance & Luk, 2000). Other physical developmental abnormalities in accordance with Barkley (2005) include the appearance of minor deformities, including; longer than the middle index finger, the third finger, which is longer than the second finger, ears that are slightly lower on the head, without ear plugs or furrowed tongue. Up to 80% of children with ADHD will continue to fight this disorder among adolescents, and up to 50-60% will continue to fight into adulthood (Barkley, 2005). With the impact on the school, family and social environment of the child can be revealed great emotional damage. Emotionally, children may feel isolated, angry, guilty, frustrated, and many other emotions because of relationships, opportunities, and lack of clear decision-making skills (Barkley, 2005). Many of these children may become depressed and anxious (Barkley, 2005). Many affective behaviors include stubbornness, disobedience and can sometimes be verbally or physically violent for others (Barkley, 2005).

According to Barkley (2005), almost 57% of children of preschool age are likely to be considered inattentive and over-responsive to parents under the age of four. Up to 40%, according to Barkley (2005), can have these problems for a period of three to six months for parents and teachers. According to Lavin, Gibbons, Christoffel, Rosenbaum and Binns (1996), however, it is estimated that 2% of children of preschool age really meet the criteria for ADHD and (Biederman, 1996), they explained that perhaps 10% of all children meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD (Singh, 2002). Barkley clearly indicates that the earlier symptoms of ADHD appear, and the duration of their life in childhood will determine the severity of its course and prognosis (Barkley, 2005). Individually, there are many anxiety problems for children suffering from this disorder. Some features that Barkley (2005) indicate are important to recognize that every child develops into school age;

1. The emergence of high demands of preschool age

2. Critical direct parental behavior to control circumstances.

3. Problems associated with preschool / official school personnel regarding children's behavior

4. Learning and reading problems

5. Decisions to keep the child educational level

6. Excessive outbreak of anger / difficulty in forcing a child to do business

7. Social Exclusion

According to Spira & Fischel (2005), during the preschool age at the age of 3 years. old, childish, and self-control mechanisms begin to develop. Increased self-control and development of speech continues from 3 years. (Spira & Fischel, 2005). The processes of self-control continue to develop at the age of 4 years. (Spira & Fischel, 2005). These processes work together, allowing the child to maintain self-control even after 4 years. The child's age develops the ability to pay attention to mitigating environmental incentives (Spira & Fischel, 2005). However, the question arises about maintaining attention and control over the answers and, of course, it is very important when defining the task and working within the educational environment; these processes do not manifest in individuals with ADHD due to the manifestation of hypervisual activity and impulsivity between the ages of 3 and 4 years. age and inattention, manifested about 5-6 years. (Spira & Fischel, 2005). As children develop into school age and adolescents, Barkley (2005) indicated that between 30 and 50 percent of children will be kept at the same level during school years. According to Vance & Luk (2000), 20–30% of children with ADHD show comorbidities with learning disabilities; reading, arithmetic, writing or spelling. If a child is diagnosed with ADHD and Disorder Behavior, the percentage increases for joint pathological disorder (Vance & Luk, 2000). One theoretical position (Velting & Whitehurst, 1997) is that, according to Spira and Fischel, (2005), children with ADHD do not acquire the literacy skills necessary for early reading and learning. In addition, it is hypothesized that frustration at the lack of ability perpetuates behavior by behavior that is consistently observed in school personnel of children with ADHD (Spira & Fischel, 2005).

As children move through adolescents, it is clear that with great changes in development; finding the role clarified by Eric Erikson (Berger, 2006), relational acquaintances, peer pressure and other adolescent demands become extremely complex with individual difficulties of impulsivity, hyperactivity and inattention (D. Moilanen CMSW, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007). According to Gordon (2006), indicators still have many difficulties;

1. Disorganization

2. Planning long-term assignments

3. Doing homework

4. Complain about parental rules.

5. Maintaining attention and attention

Because adolescents strive to find competent and healthy self-identification, conflicts with parental and academic systems can leave adolescents feeling eliminated, angry and upset before entering adulthood (D. Moilanen CMSW, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007).

Adulthood brings new challenges, and according to Jaffe, Benedictis, Segal & Segal (2006), the following are just some of the problems for adults living with ADHD;

1. Money Management

2. "Zoning in conversations"

3. Speaking without thinking

4. Delay

5. It becomes easily upset

Eric Erickson in Berger (2006) clarifies his theory of psychosocial development and indicates that as early adults we want to find intimacy, or we will face isolation. He clearly sees that these adults, because of their disability, will continue to face difficulties with their families, social relations and negative individual views outside of adult life. These difficulties may put them at risk to become isolated.

This individual in his family is highly dependent on this developmental disorder. According to Barkley (2005), ADHD is 25–30% acquired by heredity, and if the parent has ADHD, the child is 8–10 times more likely to acquire the disorder. Barkley (2005) also indicated that parents at the beginning of a preschool institution attend and manage their children quite well; parents tend to lose what they feel as control over their child, the further the child develops through the school. Parents can feel exhausted, depressed, and exhausted; even feeling depressed, and begin to blame themselves for the behavior of their children (Barkley, 2005). Over time, these difficulties can lead to perceptions by parents who may be less positive (Maniadaki, Sonuga, Kakouros, & Caba, 2006).

Research shows that parental perceptions in a family can clearly have implications for how a child is treated, as well as the negative effects and perceptions that affect a child’s developmental stage (Maniadaki et al., 2006). According to Maniadaki et al. (2006), parental perceptions have a significant impact on children suffering from ADHD, due to the likelihood that parents will not receive mental health services for their children; the difficulties of the parents determined the influence that the child’s behavior had on the child’s development; and parents are unable to identify the severity of the child’s symptoms, they all have a dramatic impact on the child’s developmental processes. Brothers and sisters may also have a negative perception of the child’s behavior, affecting the degree of support of the brothers and sisters to each other in the family. According to Gordon (2006), brothers and sisters may feel sorry for their brother with ADHD, or they may become angry and offended. These reactions create dynamic problems for any family and / or person involved in ADHD. Other possible obstructive perceptions of parents in the family system can be identified by comparing Erickson, Psycho-social Perspectives (Berger, 2000). According to Erickson, children from 3 years. from old to 6 years. age will develop through a series of problems for parents, taking “initiative” or “failure” that brings a sense of “guilt” (Berger, 2000). However, when a child’s complex behavior occurs, as Camparo, Christensen, Buhrmester & Hinshaw (1994) state that parents cannot allow these children to be in doubt due to excessive excessive behavior under normal conditions, and parents can see their child as a “light target.” . According to the testimony, a miscalculation of the child’s natural stimulating behavior can occur and prohibit the child from developing in a healthy, “fault-free” way, having a significant impact on their psychosocial development. An excessive amount of guilt can cause a significant amount of anxiety and depression (Burns, 1990). These negative processes in varying degrees can clearly lead to negative consequences for social and emotional processes (Burns, 1990).

Other familial processes that affect ADHD and development in accordance with Peris & Hinshaw (2003) are that the main symptoms of impulse control and inattention are primarily inheritance, and parental practices do not justify significance (Barkley, 1998; Hinshaw 1994, Johnston & Mash, 2001), causation for ADHD. However, patterns of family interaction and externalities can have a significant impact on the severity and development of ADHD (Peris & Hinshaw, 2003). (1979); MacDonald 1988; and Marshall and Johnston, 1982; Tallmadge & Benson, Barkley, 1983), that mothers of children with ADHD are less affectionate. Other alarming evidence suggests that parents may be more critically demanding, and parents themselves report a greater tendency to blame their child with ADHD for the problems they have experienced with their spouses; thereby ensuring that family system models can play an important role in the preservation and impact of ADHD on child development (Camparo et al., 1994). Of course, these processes clearly affect a school-age child in their families and external systems in ways that reduce the self-esteem, confidence, and ability of the child to properly interact and function in their environment; that Dumas and Pelletier (Dumas & Pelletier, 1999) indicated that adolescents who have reached adolescence have a lower level of self-esteem in the areas of scholastic competence, behavior and social harmony.

According to Barkley (2005), those who have ADHD sometimes do not give themselves time to objectively evaluate their emotions before a reaction, do not separate their feelings from fact. Being able to internalize our emotions, evaluate them and analyze them before showing them public help in self-control and is difficult for those who suffer from ADHD (Barkley, 2005). Those who suffer from ADHD develop the nature of social deviation due to the emerging interactions that begin during formalized training in accordance with Barkley (2005). According to Nixon (2001), those children suffering from ADHD do not have significant social skills that affect the quality of their interaction, such as; verbal and physical aggression, destructive attempts to enter new groups, negative behavior in the class, be quick temptation and break the rules. Nixon (2001) provides more evidence that social cognition is clearly affected, and children with ADHD may have greater difficulty in interpreting their environmental interactions with others. These variables clearly lead to inhibitory social contact and dysfunction in psychosocial development. According to Eric Erickson in Berger (2000), he clearly indicates that formalized schoolchildren from 7 to 11 years old must develop confidence that allows them to feel as if they have mastered “industry” (Berger, 2000). If this stage is not mastered, they may feel inferior (Berger, 2000). How can these children, who are excluded due to manifestations of ADHD behavior, be able to participate and express themselves to counter the negative aspects of “inferiority”? As these children develop in adolescents and adults, it can be assumed that when comparing the behavior of ADHD and social reactions with Erickson's psychosocial structure (Berger, 2000). Erickson says teenagers are trying to find their roles in the world, and if they fail, role-playing confusions (Berger, 2000). Confusion for those suffering from ADHD will be easy due to their exclusion from social groups and activities (Barkley, 2005). So that teenagers can find their role and their personality; they must interact with others and feel accepted in their participation (Berger, 2000). Further into adulthood, Erickson in Berger (2000), indicating that as an adult, people will seek intimacy with others or isolate themselves. The isolation factor refers to the degree to which those who develop are afraid of rejection and disappointment (Berger, 2000). К сожалению, предшествующий социальный опыт тех, кто страдает от СДВГ, может быть усеян социальным отторжением, чувствами разочарования и неприемлемости из-за импульсивности и гиперактивного поведения (Barkley, 2005). Кроме того, (Pope, Bierman, and Mumma, 1999) эти авторы согласно Nixon (2001) также утверждают, что гиперактивность и невнимательный / незрелый характер поведения ребенка с ADHD в значительной степени способствуют межличностным проблемам.

Что касается вопросов социальной справедливости и культуры; согласно Бендеру (2006), дети афроамериканцев могут быть представлены и диагностированы в отношении СДВГ. Эксперты, такие как (Dr. Rahn Bailey, 2006), согласно Бендеру (2006), утверждают, что, поскольку наука преследует новые технологические процессы для диагностики и лечения СДВГ, такие культуры, как афроамериканское сообщество, подвергаются пропаганде, спекуляциям из-за прошлых и текущих дискриминации и негативных стереотипов в отношении психических заболеваний; таким образом формируя культурные решения, чтобы избежать диагностики и лечения СДВГ. Эта культурная линза, основанная на дискриминации и опыте на основе страха с доминирующей культурой, не позволяет этическим решениям помогать и помогать афроамериканским детям (Bender, 2006). Эти решения в соответствии с экспертами (Bailey, 2006) вносят вклад в высокий уровень афроамериканских детей, непропорционально чрезмерно представленных в программах исправления и несоразмерных количествах афроамериканских детей, представленных в системе уголовного правосудия (Bender, 2006). Вопросы классовости и обнищания также могут вызывать озабоченность у тех, кто страдает от СДВГ. Согласно Visser & Lesesne (2005), диагноз ADHD среди мужчин отмечался значительно чаще в семьях с доходом ниже порога бедности, чем в семьях с доходами на уровне порога бедности или выше порога бедности. И здесь нищета дает четкое и последовательное заявление о риске для наших развивающихся детей.

В заключение я считаю, что СДВГ, по-видимому, является неуловимым, разрушительным расстройством развития. Это расстройство для моего «я» настолько разрушительно из-за его проявляющихся элементов гиперактивности, импульсивности и невнимательности. Эти переменные - это процессы, которые, если они представлены в определенных степенях, идеально подходят для разрушения социального, образовательного, эмоционального и индивидуального развития на протяжении всей жизни. Потому что наша жизнь настолько зависит не только от нашего биологического строительства, но и от нашего социального и экологического взаимодействия; Это расстройство может быть серьезным и разрушительным. Тем не менее я считаю, что новые технологии надеются на понимание этой инвалидности в более широких рамках. Я также получил идеи относительно новой информации о нейропластичности и меняющемся разуме, основанном на мыслительном мышлении. Я считаю, что это может быть возможной границей исследований, которая должна стать приоритетом в лучшем понимании того, как мозг может изменять формы; особенно в областях передней лобной коры.

LJ Riley Jr. BSW, LLMSW

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